Over the past 1425 years, Islam has spread from the small trading town of Makkah on the Arabian Peninsula to become a world religion practiced on every continent. Like other world religions, Islam has been spreading ever since its origin, both through migration of Muslims to new places, and by individuals who have accepted Islam as their religion, having chosen to convert from other religions.
During the first century after the Hijrah, rapid expansion of the territory under Muslim rule took place as a result of military campaigns. This territory did not instantly become "Islamic," meaning that most people rapidly became Muslims. In fact, the spread of Islam among the population took centuries, even in the regions conquered in the 7th century CE.
The following timeline marks dates when various regions were first introduced to Islam. It also gives the dates when Muslims probably became a majority of the population in those regions. It also marks important dates in the past two hundred years or so, when Muslim majority regions were conquered by groups of other faiths. During the past century, many Muslim regions were colonized by European nations, with Muslim countries formed after independence. Religious life in those countries was much affected by foreign rule. In turn, emigration by Muslims and travel by non-Muslims has resulted in introducing Islam to Europe and the Americas. The timeline also records trends in cultural and religious influence by Muslims and by non-Muslims that affect the spread of Islam.
622 Muhammad and the Muslims migrated from Makkah to Madinah at the invitation of the Madinans. Muhammad became the city’s leader, and the first Muslim community was established.
630 Makkah surrendered to the Muslim force, placing the city under Muslim rule. Many members of Quraysh accepted Islam shortly after.
632 Muhammad died, leaving much of the Arabian Peninsula under Muslim rule.
634-650 Muslim armies defeat Byzantine and Persian imperial armies, bringing Syria, Iraq, Egypt and Iran under Muslim rule, including the cities of Jerusalem, Damascus, and Alexandria.
711-715 Spain, Turkistan and Sind (northern India) were brought under Muslim rule.
750s Muslim soldiers settled in Chang’an (Xian), the largest city in China. Muslim merchants also visited and settled in southern Chinese ports.
*ca. 800-850 Islam became the faith of the majority of people in Iran.
819 The Samanids became the first independent Muslim state in northeastern Iran and Central Asia. By the 900s CE, Islam became the majority religion in that region.
*ca. 850-900 Islam became the majority religion in Iraq, Egypt and Tunisia.
*ca. 940-1000 Islam became the majority religion in Muslim-ruled parts of the Iberian Peninsula (today’s Spain and Portugal).
1099-1187 Western European Crusader armies held Jerusalem.
11th c Muslim traders in West Africa began to spread Islam. Muslims settled in the Champa region of Vietnam and introduced Islam.
1040s The Almoravids, a Muslim Berber ruling group spread Islam in Mauritania and other parts of west Africa. They campaigned against the Soninke kings of Ghana.
1060s The Almoravids ruled in the Maghrib and Muslim Spain (al-Andalus). The empire of Ghana weakened.
*ca.1200 Islam became the majority religion in Syria.
13th c. Ghana’s empire collapsed and Mali rose. Rulers of Kanem, near Lake Chad, became Muslim
End 13th c Muslims lived in northern ports of Sumatra (today’s Indonesia). Muslim traders had close trade and cultural contacts in the trading cities on the east Indian coast, such as Gujarat.
ca.1300 Islam became the majority faith in Anatolia (part of today’s Turkey).
1295 The Ilkhan ruler Ghazan "the Reformer" was the first Mongol leader to become Muslim, along with most of his Mongol generals.
1324-25 Mansa Musa, king of Mali, made the pilgrimage journey to Makkah, strengthening Mali’s links with Islam.
14th c. Mali, Gao, and Timbuktu, cities on the Niger River in west Africa became important centers of Muslim trade and scholarship
15th c. A ruler of Malacca converted to Islam, while that port city was becoming an important stop on the China-Indian Ocean trade routes. From Malacca, Islamic influence spread in the Malay peninsula and nearby islands.
1453 Ottoman forces conquered the city of Constantinople, ending the Byzantine Empire.
1085-1492 Spanish Christian forces carried out Reconquista in the Iberian Peninsula.
1495 Muslims and Jews were expelled from Spain, while others were forced to convert to Christianity.
1501-1600 Safavid rulers in Iran established a strong Shi’i Muslim state, arts and culture flourish.
1526-1707 Mughal India was established and reached its greatest size and cultural influence. Religious tolerance toward Hindus varied among rulers. Both Muslim and Hindu influences contributed to Mughal culture, politics and the arts.
1500-1570s Ottoman Muslim Turks united most of Southwest Asia and North Africa (often called the Middle East) under their rule. The Ottoman Empire expanded into Eastern Europe. Religious tolerance policies gave non-Muslim minorities autonomy in worship and religious law.
1500-1680 Muslim empires and small states expanded the territory under Muslim rule and influence, such as Kanem-Bornu, Songhai, Bondu, Nubia and Ethiopia. European economic and military pressure increased in coastal areas of West and East Africa.
1500-1600 Muslim rule replaced Hindu rule in the Indonesian islands of Sumatra and Java
1500-1600 Central Asian Muslim states weakened as overland trade on the old Silk Roads declined, and sea trade by Europeans increased. The Russian Empire expanded into Central Asia, defeating Muslim states near the border Europe and Asia.
1748-1800 The Safavid Empire in Iran ended. British and Russian military and economic influence in the region grew.
1608-1670 Islamic political, religious and cultural influence grew in Malaysia and Indonesia, while Dutch economic and political pressure also grew.
1641 Dutch forces conquered Malacca, a major port in Southeast Asia, which was the gateway to the China Sea and the Pacific.
1669-1774 Ottoman territories in Eastern Europe were lost to Europeans and Russians. Ottoman government weakened, and European economic pressure grew.
1761-1800 Hindu Marathas and Sikhs challenged Mughal rule over parts of India. British control of Indian territory expanded to the Ganges River plain.
1725-1898 Muslim states and reform movements extend Islamization in West Africa, North Africa and the Sudan, including Abd al-Qadir in Algeria, Uthman dan Fodio in Nigeria, Samori Ture in and Muhammad al-Mahdi in the Sudan. These movements, which include military challenges, oppose British and French political control of these African regions.
1830-1882 French invaded and colonized Algeria and Tunisia. British forces occupied Egypt. North African nationalist and religious movement challenged British and French colonial power.
1803-1818 Delhi fell to the British in 1803, and British rule was established all over India.
1800-1910 Dutch control of the Indonesian islands expanded. Religious reform movements in Sumatra and Java opposed colonial rule. These movements helped spread Islam and Muslim cultural and political influence.
1802-1925 Wahhabi Muslim reformers call for returning to a more purist interpretation of Islam, and revolted in Iraq, Syria and Arabia in 1802. Wahhabi influence continued in Arabia, leading to the founding of Saudi Arabia in 1925 by Ibn Saud.
1800-1920 Russia and China imposed direct rule on Central Asian Muslim states. Muslim revivalist movements, led by Sufi orders such as the Naqshbandi, opposed colonial rule. Attempts to assimilate Chinese Muslims to Confucianism added to pressure on Muslims from European economic and military power.
1917-1949 The Russian and Chinese Revolutions brought anti-religious and communist ideas and strong central governments. Persecution of Muslims and other religious groups brought cultural and religious disaster to those regions. Practice of religion was strongly limited.
1900-1912 Britain colonized Nigeria. France conquered Morocco and the Sahara. Italy conquered Libya. European rule contributed to the spread of Islam and the growth of Muslim institutions in these areas.
1908-1920 The Ottoman Empire was broken up at the end of World War I, ending 700 years of rule. Many of its territories were already under European colonial rule. Modern Turkey was carved out of Anatolia. The Treaty of Versailles and the League of Nations established French mandates (temporary rule) over Lebanon and Syria, and British mandates over Iraq, Palestine and Jordan. The Jewish Zionist movement gained British support to establish a Jewish state in Palestine.
1800-1945 Traditional Muslim educational institutions declined with European political and economic takeover. Islamic awqaf (charitable foundations) were taken over by governments. European influence over schools made a sharp division between religious and secular education, and many upper class parents sent their children to European-model schools and missionary schools established by churches in Muslim countries.
1900-1948 With the support of the Zionist movement and growing persecution of Jews in Russia and Europe, Jews acquired land and settled in Palestine under the British Mandate. British exited their mandate and Jews established the State of Israel in 1948. Many Muslim and Christian Palestinians lost their land, homes and lives, and became refugees.
1900-1938 Nationalist independence movements in Asia and Africa included the growth of Muslim political parties in India, Indonesia, Egypt and in North Africa and China. Efforts to retain Islamic education and preserve
1945-1990 Independence movements and war-weakened European colonial powers gain independence for Muslim countries from Central Asia to Africa and Europe. Borders often reflected former colonies. Post-colonial governments were committed to secularization and controlling of Islamic influence, believing that modernization can best be achieved with religion under state control. Muslim movements opposed these views and secular governments.
1800-2000 European and American citizens’ learn about Islam and Muslim culture in popular media and education. European and American universities opened departments of Islamic and Muslim studies. Books, television, Internet and movies, cultural institutions like museums provide information on Islam. Immigration By 1980, most European and US curriculum include study of Islam and Muslim history. Muslim publications and organizations challenged western misunderstanding of Islam and Muslims.
1920-2000 Muslims emigrate to European former colonial powers, the United States, and Latin America, especially after 1945, and in the US, after 1975. African Americans join movements influenced by Islam, and some enter Islam. By 2000, nearly 40% of the American Muslim population of 4-6 million are African American. By 2000, Muslims formed large minorities in France, Germany, the Netherlands, Italy and the United Kingdom. Significant Muslim minorities in western industrialized countries lead to increased participation of Muslims in those societies and the growth of religious, educational, civic and cultural institutions.
Sources:
Richard W. Bulliet, Conversion to Islam in the Medieval Period: An Essay in Quantitative History (Harvard University Press, 1979) [The dates marked with an *asterisk are derived from this study]
Khalid Y. Blankinship, "Politics, Law and the Military," in S. L. Douglass, ed., World Eras: Rise and Spread of Islam, 622-1500 (Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Group, Inc., 2002), pp. 230-232.
Marshall G. S. Hodgson, The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization, Vols. 1 & 2 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974)
Francis Robinson, ed. Atlas of the Islamic World Since 1500 (New York: Facts on File, Inc, 1982.
